MAYAN TEMPLES
When the Spanish conquistadors claimed areas of Central America and
Mexico in the sixteenth century, they discovered the ruins of a great
civilization, that of the Mayans, who had vanished and left evidence of
their lost grandeur in massive structures that had been over-whelmed by
the surrounding rain forest. The native people could not explain the
significance of the sprawling, vacant cities to the conquistadors.
Unlike the great Incan cities, the Mayan centers had long been
abandoned.
The ruins of the Mayans did not begin to reveal their secrets for 300
years. Since the nineteenth century, enough information has been
gathered about the Mayan structures to sketch a history of their
development, but the reasons why the great structures were suddenly
abandoned, and the exact purposes of the massive and elaborate
buildings, continue to remain trapped in the past.
The Mayan empire stretched south from the present-day Mexican states
of Veracruz, Yucatán, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas to almost all of
Guatemala and parts of Belize and Honduras. Ruins in the Guatemalan
highlands include Copán, a typical Mayan center with plazas, pyramids, a
court for ball games, and blocks of stone inscribed with hieroglyphics.
Tikal, another Mayan center in Guatemala, had more than 3,000
structures in a six-square-mile area. Vast palaces with hundreds of
rooms, rows and rows of wooden huts, and increasingly larger buildings
approaching the center of Tikal accommodated a surrounding community
that may have numbered as many as 90,000 people.
Palenque is among the centers in the middle area of the Mayan region,
where the rain forest is thickest. Among the finds there is the Temple
of Inscriptions, a 65-foot-high pyramid. A secret passageway was found
by archaeologists in 1952 that led to an elaborate tomb. Riches of jade,
finely carved, life sized statues, and an elaborately sculpted
sarcophagus were discovered. When modern archaeologists finally mastered
Mayan hiero-glyphics in the 1970s, inscriptions on the wall of the
temple were deciphered. They identified the corpse as Sun Lord Pacal and
described his life. Tracing references of dates with the Mayan
calendar, another example of Mayan achievement, archaeologists were able
to determine that Sun Lord Pacal was born in 603, ascended to the
throne in 614, and died in 683. The 69 steps that run up the front of
the temple each represent a year of his reign.
The Yucatan peninsula along the Gulf of Mexico forms the northernmost
region of Mayan settlement. Among the ruins there are Chichen Itza,
which feature a collection of pyramids, temples, and other common Mayan
structures as well as an observatory where the movements of the Sun and
Moon and the planets Mars, Venus, and Jupiter were charted. Further
inland lies Uxmal, site of two temple pyramids, a complex of four
buildings around a courtyard, and the Palace of Governors with
magnificent terraces and a stone mosaic frieze more than 300 feet long
(a mosaic consists of small, inlaid materials of various colors that
form a pattern or a picture, and a frieze is a richly ornamented band or
line on a building).
The various ruins were not excavated and examined until the latter
half of the nineteenth century. They show that Mayans developed systems
of mathematics, writing, and astronomy and erected monumental forms of
architecture. Subsequent discoveries showed their calendar recorded
dates as far back as 600 B.C.E. By the first century B.C.E., they
specifically used a calendar that had 18 20-day months—matching the
Mayan base-20 mathematical system (the contemporary mathematical system
used in the West is base-10).
Because of the state of decline in which the conquistadors found
Native Americans of the region, and fueled by cultural bias that made
Europeans skeptical that less-advanced people could create such
monumental structures, many early explorers believed that the
engineering feats of the Mayans had been directed by peoples from the
eastern Mediterranean region. Phoenicians and Egyptians had been
seafaring people in ancient times. Perhaps they had sailed across the
Atlantic Ocean. Those who believed such theories speculated that the
Mediterranean seafarers had directed the Mayans to build pyramids,
taught them hiero-glyphics, and brought them social order.
Variations on the theme of an external influence on the ancient
Mayans continued to develop. Instead of Egyptians or Phoenicians,
however, it was advanced Asians who first reached the Mayans and taught
them secrets of architecture and mathematics, written language and
astronomy. Or perhaps inhabitants of the legendary continent of Atlantis
spread their knowledge to various peoples of the world, including the
Mayans.
Excavations helped clarify some of the mysteries involving the
Mayans. They had distinctive cultural traits evident in similarities of
architecture—including pyramids, terraces, and ball courts—and artistic
styles of paintings and pottery spread throughout their empire. When
modern archaeologists learned how to read Mayan hieroglyphics by
establishing meanings and patterns in the images, a history emerged that
showed the Mayan centers were not occupied by peaceful astronomers and
the large structures did not serve specifically as ceremonial sites.
Instead, the hieroglyphics boasted of the accomplishments of a war-like
elite. Many of the great Mayan buildings were monuments to great
military leaders. Settlements with large structures served as centers
for trade, but primarily for the accumulation of riches for the elite of
Mayan society. Those who contributed to culture, artisans and
astronomers among them, were highly esteemed, but a ruling elite held
the riches and the power.
The Mayans learned to grow maize, beans, squash, and cacao. They
raised cotton and developed a textile industry for spinning, dyeing, and
weaving cloth, but they did not develop metal tools, domesticate large
beasts of burden, and, in spite of building an elaborate system of
roads, did not develop the wheel. Over the centuries, the Mayans
domesticated the dog and the turkey, and they discovered how to mine
copper, gold, silver, and jade, creating valuable and prized items.
From 800 to 500 B.C.E., the Mayans began erecting modest burial monuments, which by
Mayan temple in Tikel, Guatemala. (
THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
)
circa 400 B.C.E. to 250 C.E. had evolved into terraced, pyramidal
shapes. The Mayan pyramids differ from those in Egypt, where the sides
of the structures converge to form a pointed top. The pyramidal
structures of the Mayans reach a certain height, then level off to form a
flat platform on which temples were built.
Mayan civilization thrived until around 800 when a decline began.
Tikal was abandoned, and the process of recording events stopped there
by 900. Building began in another center, Seibal, in the southern
low-lands in 830 but ended abruptly around 900. Uxmal showed more
development around 850, but it was abandoned around 925. Chichen Itza
was abandoned around 987. It was subsequently occupied, like some of the
other centers, but new massive structures were not built and the old
temples did not serve the same functions as they had in the past.
In 2000, near the present-day village of Cancuen, Guatemala, a Mayan
palace was discovered in a long-abandoned city named the Place of
Serpents that is estimated to cover an area as large as two football
fields. With 170 high-ceiling rooms and 11 courtyards, the palace was
revealed to have been a prosperous center of commerce and crafts.
Inscriptions on the palace walls showed that it was completed by a
leader named Tah ak Chaan, who ruled over Cancuen from 740 to around
790. Unlike other Mayan centers, there are as yet no indications that
the rulers of the area engaged in warfare. There are no pyramids in the
area, or outdoor plazas, and there appears to be a complete absence of
religious symbols or any indications of the ceremonies evident in other
Mayan centers. Rulers of the city appeared to specialize in commerce,
not warfare, and a larger working-class group of people seemed to live
in the Place of Serpents than at other Mayan centers. Hundreds of
workshops where artisans plied their crafts were found.
What factors caused the demise of the Mayan empire remains a mystery.
Destruction from earthquakes is evident in some Mayan centers, but not
all, and earthquakes are not believed to have leveled any of the major
centers. There is no evidence of mass burials that would indicate an
epidemic, such as plague, small pox, or other infectious diseases that
swept through Europe during the same time as the Mayan’s golden era and
downfall. An isolated disruption caused by conquerors from the north, a
natural catastrophe, or war among leaders of Mayan centers would have
affected trade routes that ran through the interior. Tikal, a major
inland center dependent on trade, would certainly have been affected by
such a disruption. Twice, in the sixth and ninth centuries, Tikal seems
to have undergone some form of chaos.
The great success of the Mayan culture may be a plausible reason for
their downfall. As the population grew, the stress on agriculture became
greater, for an expanding population requires consistently more food
production. Soil erosion or drought would have greatly affected the
large settlements. A decrease in production would have led to
malnutrition, increasing the likeliness of disease. Some human skeletal
remains from the period show signs of malnutrition, but no conclusive
evidence has been found to determine a sudden, widespread catastrophe.
Strange as it may seem, the Mayan calendar may have played an
influential role in the culture’s decline. The calendar was used for
prophecy, as well as marking the date. The Mayan calendar begins with a
date relative to 3114 B.C.E., when, according to the Mayans, the world
began and the first Great Cycle got underway. Thirteen future cycles
were recognized, and bad things often happened at the end of such
cycles. For example, one cycle ended during the 500s, at about the same
time that the city of Tikal went into decline. Another decline occurred
in Tikal 256 years later, also at the end of a Great Cycle, and the city
was all but abandoned.
Whatever happened to the Mayans was an event of such magnitude that
it caused a fracture in the long-standing practices and social order of
the entire culture. The great cities continued to be occupied for
decades after the hieroglyphics stopped reporting triumphs, and then the
majestic temples, stately pyramids, and massive edifices were abandoned
completely to the surrounding jungle.
Whether or not the unknown dire events were prophesied or became
self-fulfilling prophecies by the belief of a superstitious people
accepting their fate is not known. According to Mayan prophecy, the end
of the most current Great Cycle —2012— will end with a cataclysmic
flood.
